Sociolinguistique : Concepts et multilinguisme

Introduction to Sociolinguistics: Multilingualism

Multilingualism, a key topic in sociolinguistics, refers to the ability of an individual to speak and express themselves in more than one language, or the use of multiple languages within a society or territory. It encompasses various linguistic phenomena such as linguistic variation, language and social class, language and gender, language choice, code-switching, diglossia, and Accommodation Theory.

Defining Multilingualism

There are diverging views on what constitutes bi/multilingualism:

• Bloomfield's perspective (1933, 1935) emphasizes "native-like control of two languages," requiring a high level of competence in both without loss of the native language.
• Haugen's perspective (1953, 1956) is more inclusive, suggesting that even minimal competence in more than one language qualifies someone as bilingual. He defines a bilingual as anyone who is not monolingual (a person who knows only one language), regardless of the proficiency level or how different the languages are.
• A functional view (Lüdi & Py 2003) considers individuals bi/multilingual if they practice two or more languages and can switch between them without significant difficulty.
• Other definitions include incipient bilingualism (Diebold 1964) and the alternate use of two or more languages (Mackey 1986).

Types of Multilingualism

Multilingualism can manifest in different forms, both individually and societally (Lüdi 1996):

1. Individual Multilingualism: An individual's ability to express themselves in multiple languages. It represents a whole linguistic repertoire rather than just adding multiple monolingual competencies. Grosjean (1982) estimates that half of the world's population is bilingual.
2. Territorial Multilingualism: Languages are distributed geographically, with specific languages tied to particular regions or territories within a state. Examples include Switzerland, Belgium, and Canada.
3. Societal Multilingualism (Diglossia): The use of different languages or language varieties within a society for distinct social functions. This often involves a prestige language alongside local lingua francas, as seen in many African states where European languages co-exist with indigenous ones.
4. Institutional Multilingualism: The use of multiple languages in national or international administrations and institutions.

Territorial and Societal Multilingualism in Practice

Multilingual States with Territorial Principles

In these states, languages are often officially recognized based on their geographic distribution:

• Switzerland: Most cantons have one official language, but some, like Wallis, Freiburg, Bern, and Graubünden, recognize multiple languages (e.g., French, German, Rhaeto-romanic).
• Belgium: Divided into Flemish-speaking, French-speaking, and German-speaking communities, plus the bilingual Brussels-Capital Region.
• Canada: Notably, Quebec is French-speaking, and New Brunswick is officially bilingual.

Multilingual States with Individual Multilingualism

Here, languages are not strictly divided by territory but are used based on the situation, often with a "main language" or "ethnic language" for the speaker. African states like Namibia often feature European prestige languages alongside local lingua francas such as Suaheli or Hausa.

Monolingual States with Minority Languages

Many European states have one official language but host linguistic communities speaking other languages due to historical events (e.g., border corrections or state creations). Examples include the Ladins in Italy and the Catalans in Spain.

Urban immigrants also contribute to multilingualism, forming "allochthonous minorities" in diverse communities, from "China Town" to "Little Italy."

Luxembourg is a unique case, a small state with a high percentage of foreigners and cross-border workers, recognizing Luxembourgish as the national language, French for jurisdiction, and French, German, and Luxembourgish for administration.

Bilingual Acquisition in Childhood

Romaine (1989) identifies six types of bilingual acquisition in children:

1. One Person – One Language: Parents speak different native languages, each addressing the child in their own language, typically when one parent's language is dominant in the community.
2. Non-dominant home language / One language – one environment: Both parents speak a non-dominant language at home, with the child exposed to the dominant language outside.
3. Non-dominant home language without community support: Parents share the same native language, which is not the dominant community language; they speak their language to the child.
4. Double non-dominant home language without community support: Parents have different native languages, both of which differ from the dominant community language; they each speak their language to the child.
5. Non-native parents: Parents share the same native language, which is also the dominant community language, but one parent consistently addresses the child in a non-native language.
6. Mixed languages: Bilingual parents code-switch and mix languages when speaking to their child, often in bilingual community sectors.