Routes maritimes et géopolitique mondiale

Maritime Areas, Globalisation, and Unequal Development

Globalisation is the intricate and accelerating process of worldwide interconnectedness across economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions. It is characterized by international flows of finance, people, goods, services, and information, constantly evolving rather than representing a static state. While its roots can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution, the period since the 1950s has witnessed a profound shift from an international economy based on bilateral exchanges to a multinational one, significantly propelled by China's emergence as a major politico-economic force in the 1980s following its "open door" policy.

Manifestations and Drivers of Globalisation

Globalisation expresses itself through:

• Increased global trade and the growing influence of trade blocs.
• Surging cross-border financial flows, including Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and remittances.
• The internationalisation of products (global products) and services, the rise of global brands, and the concept of glocalisation (adapting global products to local markets).
• Shifts in production and consumption patterns, such as the expansion of outsourcing and the emergence of the New International Division of Labour (NIDL).
• Increasing levels of labour migration.
• The conceptualisation of the world into core and periphery countries in terms of trade and economic power.

Technological advancements, particularly in transport (e.g., containerisation) and communication (e.g., the internet), have drastically reduced natural barriers of time and space, further facilitating globalisation. These global flows converge in critical hubs like global cities and key maritime areas, such as the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca.

The primary drivers of globalisation are Transnational Corporations (TNCs), seeking to increase profits, and supranational organisations, which regulate and promote international cooperation.

Reasons for the Success of TNCs

TNCs thrive due to:

• Reduced protectionism.
• Rising living standards and growing consumer power globally, enabling broader market access. TNCs can also contribute to raising living standards in Low-Income Countries (LICs) by providing employment.
• Lower transport costs, significantly aided by containerisation, which standardises transport and makes products affordable in distant markets.
• Digital communication, accelerating the spread of ideas and facilitating international management.

Containerisation: A Catalyst for Global Trade

Containerisation is the systemic use of standardised intermodal containers transported by container ships to move commodities (goods and raw materials) worldwide. This innovation has been instrumental in the modern global economy.

Vocabulary of Containerisation

• Container ship: A type of cargo ship; others include oil tankers and bulk carriers.
• Cargo/freight: The contents carried by a cargo ship.
• TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units): An inexact measure of cargo capacity, based on the volume of a 20-foot intermodal container.
• FEUs (forty-foot equivalent units): Equivalent to two TEUs.
• Intermodal containers: Standardised metal boxes easily transferred between ships, trains, and trucks.

Historical Background and Evolution

Developments in transport and communication, starting in the 19th century with railways, telegraphs, and steamships, accelerated in the 20th century with jet aircraft and containerisation. These advancements led to a "shrinking world" by reducing transport costs per unit, making products more affordable in distant markets and fostering new flows of goods and information. The harnessing of new energy forms (coal, oil, jet fuel) allowed for larger loads, creating economies of scale and increasing TNC profits.

Facts and Figures

• Containerisation is crucial for today's globalised world, with 90% of trade moving via maritime routes.
• The number of container ships increased by about 11% from 2011 to 2021.
• Transporting an iPhone from China to the UK costs less than £1 due to efficiency.
• Ningbo-Zhoushan (China) has been the largest container port since 2015.
• Some container ships carry over 20,000 TEUs, equivalent to 400 trains.
• Rotterdam is Europe's largest port.

Advantages of Containerisation

• Dramatically speeds up trade and reduces costs, leading to cheaper consumer goods.
• Standardised, inter-modal containers allow quick transfer between different transport modes.
• The process is highly mechanised and automated, reducing labour costs and speeding up loading/unloading.
• Faster transport times extend the reach of perishable goods, opening new markets (e.g., cut flowers from Kenya).

Disadvantages of Containerisation

• Pollution: International shipping is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions (2.2% in 2018).
• Collisions with wildlife: Affects numerous marine species.
• Ship scrapping: After 25-30 years, ships are dismantled in low-paid, dangerous conditions, causing environmental damage.
• Lost containers: Thousands are lost at sea annually, impacting marine environments and species.

Maritime Routes and Geostrategic Importance

Maritime routes are crucial corridors, typically a few kilometres wide, connecting global economic regions. They circumnavigate the globe, utilising oceans, seas, and vital canals and straits to link major production and consumption hubs efficiently. The goal is to connect manufacturing centres and markets via the quickest and safest passages, supporting commercial circulation.

The primary global maritime axis is a circum-equatorial corridor linking North America, Europe, and Pacific Asia via the Suez Canal, the Strait of Malacca, and the Panama Canal. This axis handles the bulk of global traffic, but many other routes exist depending on origin and destination.

Factors Shaping Maritime Routes

Maritime routes are influenced by:

• Choke points: Narrow channels that restrict passage.
• Physical constraints: Coasts, winds, marine currents, depth, reefs, ice.
• Political borders.

Core routes service major markets with the most significant commercial shipping flows, while secondary routes connect smaller markets.

Choke Points: Strategic Vulnerabilities

Specific geographic locations, often due to geography, geopolitics, and trade flows, play a strategic role as choke points. They are narrow channels connecting two bodies of water along busy maritime routes, including straits and canals. They are vulnerable to disruption from accidents, terrorism, piracy, or war.

Categories of Choke Points:

• Primary Choke Points: Essential for cost-effective maritime shipping, their disruption would severely impair global trade. Examples include the Panama Canal, Suez Canal, Strait of Hormuz, and Strait of Malacca.
• Secondary Choke Points: Have alternatives but would involve notable detours. Examples include the Magellan Passage, Dover Strait, Sunda Strait, and Taiwan Strait.

Characteristics and Vulnerabilities:

• Capacity constraints: Often shallow and narrow, affecting navigation and imposing limits on ship size and traffic (e.g., Suez Canal management).
• Potential for disruptions or closure: Many are near politically unstable regions, increasing risks (e.g., piracy in Somalia affecting the Bab al-Mandab strait).
• Geopolitical significance: Control over choke points confers significant strategic power (e.g., Iran's control over the Strait of Hormuz, through which 30% of seaborne oil passes).

Closures are rare, typically occurring during wartime, but even temporary closures in the current global economy would have severe economic consequences, disrupting trade and supply chains. Countries have a strong interest in protecting these sea lanes, often through naval presence (e.g., Operation Sentinel in the Arabian Gulf).

Key Interoceanic Passages:

• Suez Canal: A 190 km artificial waterway connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas, saving 6,500 km from the circum-African route. Its blockage in March 2021 by the Ever Given demonstrated its critical importance.
• Panama Canal: Links the Atlantic and Pacific, shortening journeys between US East and West coasts by about 13,000 km. It handles 5% of global maritime trade and 12% of American international maritime trade.
• Strait of Malacca: A vital passage for trade between Europe and Pacific Asia, transiting about 30% of world trade. Challenges include dredging needs, political stability, and piracy.
• Strait of Hormuz: The strategic link between the Persian Gulf's oil fields and the Gulf of Oman/Indian Ocean. Its security is frequently compromised, impacting global oil and commercial trade between Europe and Asia.

Maritimisation and Geopolitics

Maritimisation is a process intrinsically linked to globalisation, featuring two main aspects:

• The continuous growth in the utilisation of marine resources (found in, above, and below the seas).
• The increasingly vital role of maritime routes and areas in facilitating globalisation flows (goods, people, money, information).

Seas and oceans are fundamental for resource supply (fish, energy, minerals, biomass) and for these global flows. Maritime areas are recognised under international law, including internal waters, territorial seas, contiguous zones, Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), the continental shelf, and the high seas.

Concentration of Maritime Activity

• The world's busiest ports are concentrated along Eastern Asian coastlines, particularly China, reflecting these regions' role as major manufacturing hubs.
• Partly enclosed seas (e.g., South and East China Seas, Mediterranean) and critical canals/straits are strategically vital due to concentrated global maritime traffic and significant resources.
• The increasing importance of maritime areas and traffic is both a consequence and a driver of globalisation, leading to coastal concentration of population and economic activity.

Growth in Maritime Resource Use

• Energy and Mineral Resources: Unevenly distributed. Offshore oil accounts for 30% of global production (e.g., Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Mexico, South China Seas). Improved offshore technology also supports renewable energy (wind, tidal, ocean thermal). Mineral resources on the ocean floor remain largely underexploited due to access difficulties.
• Fishery and Biomass Resources: Fishing techniques vary from small boats to huge trawlers. Aquaculture is booming, especially for the Asian market. Marine biomass (seaweeds, kelp) is used as food and has potential for fuels and high-value products.
• Marine Landscapes: Attractive tourist destinations (seaside resorts, cruises). The Caribbean and Mediterranean are popular, with growing interest in the North Sea, China Seas, Arctic, and Antarctic.

Intensive Interaction and Exchange

• Maritime transport handles over 80% of global trade volume, growing fourfold since the 1970s.
• Containerisation and specialised ships (super-tankers, bulk carriers) have facilitated this growth.
• Despite being slower, maritime transport is cheaper for long distances, enabling vast quantities to be moved, creating economies of scale.

Essential for Flows of People and Information

• Maritime routes have historically been crucial for migration (e.g., European migration to the Americas) and continue to be (e.g., Mediterranean migrant flows).
• Submarine communication cables are essential for data dissemination, carrying 99% of intercontinental data. The network is vast (1.3 million km) and rapidly expanding, driven by demand from tech giants like GAFAM (Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon, Microsoft).

The Arctic: A New Geostrategic Frontier

Climate change is impacting the Arctic, leading to a longer "open water" period and increased navigability. The Northern Sea Route (NSR), largely through Russia's territorial waters, offers a 40% quicker transit from Northern Europe to Japan than the Suez Canal. This promises cheaper shipping costs (less fuel, insurance, staff). Russia heavily relies on the Arctic for 30% of its GDP, using it to extract and transport resources.

However, challenges include the need for icebreakers, environmental problems, collision risks with wildlife, noise and water pollution, and the melting ice itself. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has introduced a Polar Code for safer Arctic travel. The NSR is particularly lucrative for fossil fuel transportation, using tankers without intermediate stops, and is considered more stable than other choke points like the Horn of Africa (piracy), Strait of Malacca (congestion), or Straits of Hormuz/Suez Canal (conflict potential).

Geopolitical Conflict in Maritime Zones

The ownership and management of oceans are complex and often contentious, despite covering 70% of the Earth's surface. Oceans are vital for transport, fishing (often unsustainable), energy potential (oil, gas, offshore wind, tidal), and as pollution sinks.

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)

An EEZ, defined by UNCLOS, grants a state special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources (including energy production) up to 200 nautical miles (nmi) from its coast. Territorial waters, extending 12 nmi, are considered sovereign territory.

EEZ Conflicts:

The exact extent of EEZs is a frequent source of interstate conflicts, intensified by technology allowing deeper resource exploitation:

• Svalbard archipelago: Norway and Russia dispute fishing and mining rights.
• East Gulf of Mexico: The Hoya de Dona oilfield is disputed by Mexico, Cuba, and the USA.
• South China Sea: An ongoing dispute involving multiple nations (China, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Vietnam). Turkey also disputes Cyprus's EEZ claim.

Case Study: The South China Sea

This sea, part of the Pacific Ocean, encompasses 3.5 million and holds immense strategic importance:

• It links the Indian and Pacific Oceans, vital for global maritime trade (one-third of world shipping, over $3 trillion annually).
• 30% of seaborne oil passes through it.
• Rich fisheries (12% of global catch) and vast oil and gas reserves (estimated 14 trillion barrels of natural gas, 16-33 billion barrels of oil).

Competing Claims:

• The Paracel and Spratly Islands (named after Captain Richard Spratly) are highly contested. China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Vietnam all claim the Spratly Islands.
• China asserts a "nine-dash line" historical claim, enclosing about 80% of the sea, where it conducts oil exploration and fishing activities.
• The US maintains interest in the South China Sea for easy navigation for TNCs, viewing China's growing presence as a challenge to its global superpower status.
• The Cabbage strategy involves surrounding an island with ships to block access.

Major Economic Powers in Maritime Areas: The Example of France

France, with an EEZ of 11 million , possesses the largest EEZ in the world, largely due to its overseas territories (97% of its EEZ). This makes France a significant regional maritime power in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.

Advantages of France's EEZ

• Abundant resources: Energy (offshore oil and gas, wind, tidal power) and mineral resources, plus rich biodiversity (fish, marine life).
• Geostrategic importance: Naval bases in three oceans and the Mediterranean allow France to project military force globally. This network enables protection of its resources, enforcement against illegal fishing and pollution, and maintenance of safe waters in busy routes like the English Channel.
• France actively participates in global security efforts, fighting piracy (Indian Ocean), drug smuggling (Caribbean), and engaging in operations in Iraq, Syria, and the Gulf of Guinea.

Maritime Trade Patterns and Economic Powers

Maritime trade patterns are driven by economic reasons, primarily seeking the shortest routes to maximise profits (reduce fuel, time, NIDL). This relies on comparative advantage and containerisation. Geopolitical and climatic factors also influence route selection.

Major economic powers are identified by high GDP. Container ships are central to maritimisation, but other cargo ships (bulk carriers, car carriers, oil tankers) also exist.

Unequal Integration and Unequal Development in a Globalised World

Global integration refers to a country's involvement in global flows (goods, finance, people, information), evidenced by concentrations of container ports, airports, trade, and global cities (hubs). The KOF index measures this integration.

Main Actors of Globalisation

Beyond TNCs, international organisations play a crucial role. The world economy is increasingly multipolar, moving away from the Cold War's bipolarity due to the rise of emerging economies.

Regions Driving Globalisation

Three main trade blocs dominate world trade, historically driving globalisation since the 1980s:

• EU (Europe): 448 million people, 15.3% of global GDP.
• USMCA (North America + Mexico): 492 million people.
• RCEP (Pacific Asia): 2.2 billion people, 30% of global GDP.

These areas concentrate financial centres, technological R&D, and educational institutions, accounting for 75% of global GDP and 80% of TNC headquarters. However, emerging economies are dispersing global trade.

Emerging Economies and "Big Cat Economies"

• BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa): Rapid economic and political growth since the 1990s.
• MINT economies (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey).
• Next Eleven (Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, South Korea, Turkey, Vietnam).
• "African lions" (Ghana, Ethiopia) and "South American jaguars" (Chile).
• "Asian tigers" (South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore) emerged in the 1960s, followed by "tiger cubs" (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam).

Gulf states have diversified from oil/gas to finance and tourism.

Periphery of Globalisation

Many countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, remain on the periphery due to lack of development and integration. Past categorisations (First/Second/Third World, developed/developing/underdeveloped, MEDCs/LEDCs) are now often replaced by GNI-per-capita-based classifications: HICs (High-Income Countries), MICs (Middle-Income Countries), and LICs (Low-Income Countries). The term Newly Emerging Economy (NEE) is also used for rapidly industrialising countries like India.

Improving Integration and Development

The success of the "Asian tigers" (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong) was due to reliable infrastructure, high education levels, FDI from Japan/USA, and excellent geostrategic positions. Replicating this in Africa is challenging due to differing contexts.

Integration into the global economy (via trade, tourism, information flows) can boost an economy and social welfare but often struggles with environmental protection due to resource limitations. To increase trade, countries can reduce trade barriers (laissez-faire), set up Special Economic Zones (SEZs), or industrialise (Export-Oriented Industrialisation, EOI, or Import Substitution Industrialisation, ISI).

ISI involves limiting imports and increasing domestic production. While an economy can pursue both ISI and EOI, the globalised economy's reliance on NIDL and comparative advantages means ISI alone is less effective today.

Disparities in Development at International Level

Development signifies improvement in standard of living (GNI per capita) and quality of life (education, health). True development should also be equal and sustainable, meeting present needs without compromising future generations. It combines economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection.

The UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), replacing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), aim to guide this process.

Challenges to Sustainable Development

Development strategies can have unintended consequences:

• Investment in agriculture might lead to unemployment and reliance on GMOs.
• Expanding electricity grids might increase fossil fuel use or reliance on nuclear energy.
• New infrastructure (roads, railways) might displace people or cause deforestation.

The Three Gorges Dam in China, while benefiting the national economy (hydroelectric power, flood control, improved navigation), caused forced relocation for 1.3 million people, habitat destruction (e.g., Chinese river dolphin extinction), pollution, and failed promises for local farmers. This is an example of unsustainable development.

Measuring Development

Two main ways to measure development:

1. Economic Well-being (GDP and GNI)

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Total value of goods and services produced within a country in one year.
• Gross National Income (GNI): GDP plus income from overseas investments (remittances, profits from TNCs abroad).

Both are usually expressed per capita for international comparison. GNI's strength is including all national income, regardless of origin. GNI PPP per capita adjusts for cost of living differences. These metrics don't show inequalities.

2. Social Well-being (HDI)

The UN's Human Development Index (HDI), launched in the 1990s, measures social well-being across three dimensions: a long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. It uses indicators like life expectancy, schooling years, and GNI per capita.

Countries can have low GNI but high HDI (e.g., Cuba, due to free healthcare and education). Switzerland has the highest HDI. The Inequality-Adjusted HDI (IHDI) accounts for internal inequality, with a larger gap between HDI and IHDI indicating greater inequality.

The GINI Coefficient measures income or wealth inequality within a country (0 = total equality, 100 = total inequality). South Africa has one of the highest GINI coefficients. Its limitation is that it doesn't differentiate types of inequality and can show equality even when all are equally poor, unlike IHDI.

Other Measures of Development

• Individual measures: number of people per doctor, environmental expenditure as % of GDP, motor vehicles per 1000 people, energy use per person.
• Gender equality indices: GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure) and GDI (Gender-related Development Index), looking at salary differences, life expectancy, political representation.
• Important indicators: Infant mortality rates, education (especially female literacy), nutrition.

The UN measures development using:

• Human Assets Index (HAI): nutrition, health (maternal/under-5 mortality), education (secondary enrolment, adult literacy), gender equality.
• Economic Vulnerability Index (EVI): (in)stability of agricultural production, % of subsistence farming, share of agriculture/fishing in GDP, (in)stability of exports, % of population in low-lying coastal areas.
• Income: GNI per capita.

Gender parity is incorporated into the HAI, considering equality.

Causes of Lack of Integration into the Global Economy

Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

LDCs are LICs (or sometimes MICs) highly vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks and possessing low human assets. UNCTAD classifies a country as an LDC if it meets two of three criteria: low human assets (nutrition, health, education), economic vulnerability (unstable agriculture/exports, subsistence farming, coastal population), and low GNI per capita (under $1,018, must exceed$1,222 to leave the list). Currently, there are 46 LDCs globally.

Being an LDC provides exclusive support, including preferential trade agreements (lower tariffs, higher quotas), special WTO access, and financial aid (multilateral/bilateral loans, humanitarian aid, technical aid). However, aid can come with conditions or involve problems like employing foreign workers or environmental damage (e.g., China building roads in Kenya).

Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs)

LLDCs are LDCs without territorial access to the sea, limiting their economic potential and isolating them from world markets. They depend on transit through other countries for maritime trade and lack maritime resources, increasing transport costs and political complexities.

Example: Uganda, an LLDC, discovered oil but lacks maritime access. A pipeline project to Tanzania (e.g., East African Crude Oil Pipeline - EACOP) aims to connect to a port. However, this creates environmental (heated pipeline) and social (displacement, compensation) problems. TNCs like Total Energies exploit the lack of technical know-how in LDCs, taking major profits from refined oil.

Explaining the Development Gap: Why Underdevelopment?

1. Physical Geography:
   • Landlocked or small island countries (e.g., Solomon Islands) develop slower due to remoteness, climatic vulnerability, and fewer resources.
   • Mountainous regions (e.g., Nepal) hinder transport and agriculture.
   • Tropical countries (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa) face challenges like unproductive farming and extreme weather.
   • Dry/arid regions (e.g., Sahel) are bad for agriculture.
   • Natural resources can be a huge advantage for economic growth.
2. Economic Policies and Political Situation:
   • Open economies attracting foreign investment (e.g., South Korea) develop faster than closed ones (e.g., North Korea). EOI accelerates growth.
   • Institutional quality: political stability, law and order, and good governance attract FDI (e.g., Singapore's no-strike policy). Corruption and instability (e.g., Somalia) deter investment.
3. Demography:
   • Most LDCs are in Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model. Progress through this model, particularly a fall in fertility rates, boosts economic growth (e.g., Bangladesh's fertility rate dropped from 7 to 1.9).
   • High fertility rates lead to young populations and high dependency ratios, hindering development.
4. Historical Factors:
   • Colonial past heavily influences current political, social, and economic situations (e.g., South Africa's apartheid legacy, deforestation in Haiti by France vs. less destructive Spanish rule in Dominican Republic).

The combination of several negative factors exacerbates underdevelopment (e.g., landlocked small island states with few resources and natural hazards). Conversely, MICs that are large, resource-rich, and have pro-investment policies (e.g., India, China) achieve high economic growth.

Case Study: Lesotho (Landlocked LDC)

Lesotho, a landlocked LDC within South Africa, faces significant underdevelopment due to:

• Low HAI: Low adult literacy (77%), low secondary school enrolment (62%), high child mortality.
• High EVI: Over 70% of rural population in subsistence farming, prone to droughts, isolated, and landlocked.
• Low GNI per capita: $1,295 (making it an MIC, but still with LDC characteristics).

Economic dependence on South Africa (85% of goods imported, 20% of GDP from remittances). The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), a binational project with South Africa, provides water to South Africa and generates hydroelectricity/income for Lesotho. While providing economic benefits and electricity self-sufficiency, it causes social (displacement, lack of compensation) and environmental problems (flooding, loss of arable land), making it unsustainable.

Case Study: Ethiopia (Landlocked LDC)

Ethiopia, Africa's second-most populous country, has shown high growth rates (8-11% annually) driven by government investment in infrastructure and growth in agriculture/services. However, 70% of the population remains in agriculture. The state heavily controls key sectors and owns land. Foreign exchange comes from services (Ethiopian Airlines) and diverse exports (coffee, gold, sesame). China, Turkey, India, and the EU are major FDI sources (e.g., Chinese investment in the Grand Renaissance Dam). Ethiopia is an "African lion" but remained underdeveloped for long due to:

• Civil war (1961-1991) and internal conflicts.
• Reliance on subsistence farming and unequal land ownership.
• Recurrent droughts and famine (e.g., 1984-85).
• Loss of maritime access after Eritrea's secession.

International Debt Crisis and Debt Relief

The development gap is worsened by crippling external debt in poorer countries, money owed to foreign creditors (governments, banks, international lending agencies like the IMF). Countries often divert large portions of export earnings to debt repayment, hindering essential services. Unpayable debt describes debt that cannot be repaid.

Causes of the Debt Crisis

• Historical reasons: The 1973-74 Arab/Israeli conflict triggered an oil crisis, leading to OPEC's huge profits. This "petrodollar" surplus was lent to poorer countries for development.
• Cash Crops: LICs were encouraged to grow cash crops (e.g., tobacco in Malawi, cotton in Mali), making them vulnerable to global market price variations.
• Recession and interest rates: Recessions in the 1980s-90s saw rising inflation and interest rates, while crop surpluses led to falling prices. LICs could not service their loans, leading to spiralling debt.

Loans: Help or Hindrance?

Loans can boost economic growth if used wisely but often carry high interest rates or are given to corrupt leaders. Post-apartheid South Africa inherited debts from the former regime, and former colonies (e.g., Indonesia) were left with high debt upon independence.

To qualify for new loans, LICs often agree to Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) from multilateral lenders. These conditions include:

• Free trade measures, opening markets to foreign competition.
• Reduced spending on public services (education, health).
• Privatisation of public companies.
• Requirement to produce cash crops, reinforcing vulnerability.

SAPs, while promoting short-term economic development, can negatively impact social and environmental development, making them unsustainable.

Debt Relief

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) are identified by the World Bank and IMF as eligible for debt relief.

Initiatives like the 1996 HIPC initiative and the 2005 G8 summit aim to reduce unmanageable debt. To qualify, countries must agree to SAPs. Debt relief can facilitate economic competitiveness, improve foreign investment, and boost exports. However, it often involves shifting to cash crops, cutting social programmes, privatisation, and increasing environmental pressure.

Case Study: Malawi Debt Crisis

Malawi, a landlocked HIPC LDC with a very low GNI per capita ($380), accumulated significant debt due to rising interest rates, falling commodity prices (tobacco, tea), droughts, and refugees. In the 1980s-90s, annual debt repayments exceeded$100 million, leading to decreasing GDP per capita. Malawi entered the HIPC initiative in 2000. In 2005, 9.6% of GNI went to debt servicing, compared to 4.6% for healthcare.

Debt relief in 2006 came with SAPs, requiring privatisation, ending agricultural subsidies, and selling grain stocks. This led to severe food crises (2001/02, 2004/05) and thousands of deaths. After debt relief, Malawi reintroduced farming subsidies, boosting maize exports, despite criticism from the World Bank. Debt cancellation reduced annual repayments by $40 million, allowing increased social spending (e.g., free primary education) and renewed access to loans. However, falling commodity prices since 2015 have again increased Malawi's external debt.

Agricultural Dumping in Ghana

IMF SAPs have harmed Ghana's economic development. Cheap imported chicken from the US and EU (heavily subsidised) has caused the collapse of Ghana's local poultry market. This dumping (selling subsidised excess product at very low prices) ruined local producers, leading to job losses and migration. While Ghana attempted to protect its industry with tariffs, the IMF, as part of SAPs, reduced these, viewing them as barriers to free trade. This "free trade" benefits richer countries and reinforces dependency, while hindering diversification in poorer nations.

Main Strategies to Tackle Lack of Integration

Development theories (Core-Periphery, Clarke's Sector Model, Modernisation Theory, Dependency Theory, World Systems Theory) attempt to explain development disparities.

Activity Sectors

• Primary sector: extracting resources (fishing, agriculture, mining).
• Secondary sector: manufacturing.
• Tertiary sector: services (hairdresser, teacher).
• Quaternary sector: high-end expertise in science and technology (programming).

Development Strategies and Actors

Strategies include ODA, loans with SAPs, FDI, protectionist policies, top-down development strategies (EOI, SEZs), tourism, and the SDGs. Actors include IGOs (IMF, World Bank, WTO), NGOs, and TNCs.

Development Theories: Core and Periphery

Myrdal's Core-Periphery Model divides the world into:

• Core: Major world powers with significant wealth (e.g., Europe, US, Australia, Japan, Singapore). Characterised by high wages, healthcare access, innovation, prosperity, and often ageing populations.
• Periphery: Countries with less global wealth and development (e.g., Africa, South America, Asia). Characterised by poverty, inadequate healthcare, limited water access, poor infrastructure, and high population growth.

The core extracts cheap labour and raw materials from the periphery. For example, France/UK are core (decision-making), while DRC (resources) and Bangladesh (production) are periphery. China exhibits both core and periphery characteristics, highlighting the model's limitations.

Core-Periphery Roots in Colonialism: Dependency Theory

This theory argues that core countries exploit the natural resources and cheap labour of periphery countries. During colonialism, raw materials were extracted from colonies, manufactured in core countries, and sold back to the periphery. In the modern era, TNCs and IGOs are seen as maintaining this post-colonial dependency. For the NIDL to sustain TNC profits, some countries must remain as 'periphery' states. When periphery states develop (e.g., Asian NICs), TNCs seek out new regions with cheaper labour and resources (flying geese paradigm).

Core-periphery dynamics exist at international, regional, and city levels. In China, coastal areas are core, inland areas are periphery. In India, Kerala and Goa are core regions. In Marseille, the south (port, international tourism) is core, while the north is periphery. The theory is criticised for not adequately accounting for the semi-periphery.

World Systems Theory (Wallerstein)

This theory expands on core-periphery by adding the semi-periphery (MICs). The semi-periphery acts as a periphery to the core and a core to the periphery. This model explains how countries can evolve from periphery to core through the semi-periphery stage.

Clarke's Sector Model

Suggests economies transition linearly: agricultural industrialisation post-industrial.

Modernisation Theory (Rostow)

Based on linear growth, proposing that all societies follow a series of stages to modernise and achieve economic development, mirroring the path of the US and UK.

Criticisms of Linear Development Models

These models are criticised for assuming a single path to development, ignoring variations in social/political realities, and focusing solely on economic development (GDP increase) rather than the multifaceted nature of development.

Export-Oriented Industrialisation (EOI) and NICs

Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs) are nations that underwent rapid, successful industrialisation. Four generations are recognised in Southeast Asia:

• 1st gen: Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea).
• 2nd gen: Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia.
• 3rd gen: Philippines, India, China.
• 4th gen: Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Vietnam.

The flying geese paradigm illustrates how periphery countries become semi-periphery and then core. Japan outsourced to 1st gen NICs (e.g., South Korea, Taiwan) seeking cheap but skilled labour and good infrastructure. As wages rose, 1st gen NICs and other HICs outsourced to 2nd gen NICs, and so on. This process created a regional division of labour where NICs occupy an intermediate position.

First-generation NICs succeeded due to:

• Good initial infrastructure.
• Investment in education and specialised skills.
• Cultural traditions valuing achievement.
• Geostrategic location (e.g., Singapore on Straits of Malacca, Hong Kong as a trade link to China).
• Availability of low-interest bank loans for big businesses (e.g., Samsung in South Korea).

Case Study: South Korea (EOI)

South Korea's success stemmed from:

• Government influence: Foreign aid, state bank loans, suppressed wages (banning unions), heavy investment in education, and export-oriented production.
• Protectionist policies: Shielding domestic companies (e.g., Samsung) from foreign competition via tariffs.
• Attracting FDI.
• Industrialisation progression: From textiles/shoes to heavy industry (steel, cars, ships), then electrical goods, and now high-tech equipment (semiconductors, smartphones).

Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

SEZs are geographical regions with liberal economic and labour laws designed to attract FDI. Features include tax concessions, flexible labour laws, and improved infrastructure (power, transport, communications). They focus on export-oriented production and are often the result of government-TNC interaction. SEZs create core-periphery effects within a country. Negative effects include environmental pollution and social problems (e.g., family unit disintegration due to migration).

Case Study: SEZs in China: Set up after 1978 reforms to attract investment, primarily on the eastern/southern coast near ports (e.g., Shenzhen, a megacity and global container hub where Foxconn produces for Apple). This led to national economic success but also environmental damage, social problems, and regional economic disparities between eastern core and western periphery.

Case Study: SEZs in India: Less successful than China's due to poorer infrastructure, smaller/isolated zones, and lack of connectivity to major ports. India aims to be an alternative to China but faces comparative disadvantages in regulations and governance. India is now encouraging production for its growing domestic market within SEZs.

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

NGOs are part of civil society, involved in diverse activities, from trade unions to religious groups and development-oriented organisations. They are funded by governments and donations. Examples include Fair Trade International (farmers' conditions), War on Want (garment workers' rights), Amnesty International (human rights), and WWF (environmental development).

Barefoot College in India trains women in LDCs (e.g., Sierra Leone) in solar panel installation, improving living conditions, empowering women, and promoting environmental sustainability.

Oxfam, a large British NGO, funds smaller grassroots initiatives (e.g., sustainable forestry in Burkina Faso). NGOs adopt a "grassroots" or "bottom-up" approach, making them more democratic, less bureaucratic, and promoting sustainable solutions. However, they are sometimes accused of being unaccountable and reinforcing dependency.

NGOs act as tools for development strategies, providing an alternative to capitalist "trickle-down" and state-socialist models. While not development strategies themselves, they implement them (e.g., rural development, health, education).

Role of Key International Organisations in Globalisation

Global governance involves collective action by trade blocs, international (IGOs), and supranational organisations to manage global affairs, striving for peace, justice, and functioning markets. While bilateral relations are important, IGOs (UN, WTO, IMF) regulate interstate relations. Supranational organisations (e.g., EU) have their own administrative structures above national governments.

Key IGOs:

• WTO: Promotes free trade (fewer taxes, tariffs, quotas), global development, and integration. Criticised for favouring wealthier nations and powerful voting blocs that use subsidies (e.g., agricultural subsidies harming LICs). It can increase inequalities by hindering diversification in poorer countries.
• IMF: Fosters global growth and economic stability, providing loans with SAPs, requiring economic policy reforms. Voting power is linked to economic strength, giving more influence to richer countries.
• World Bank: Provides loans for development, aiming to reduce poverty (IDA). It offers low-interest loans and grants, and debt relief (HIPC Initiative, MDRI). Criticised for negative human rights impacts, funding large-scale projects without local consultation (top-down), and prioritising economic benefits over environmental impacts (e.g., Ethiopia Gibe II dam, Uganda Bugaldi hydropower project).

Regional Integration and Trade Blocs

Regional trade blocs reduce trade barriers (tariffs, quotas) among members. They vary in integration levels:

• Free Trade Area (e.g., USMCA): Remove internal barriers, but members maintain independent external policies.
• Customs Union (e.g., MERCOSUR): Common external policies.
• Common Market (e.g., former EEC): Free movement of resources (labour) in addition to goods/services.
• Economic Union (e.g., EU): Uniform economic policies, often a single currency.

Regional organisations encourage cooperation and integration. Powerful states use regional integration (e.g., China with ASEAN/RCEP, EU with neighbours) to strengthen their position and attract FDI. However, trade blocs can hinder non-members' integration (e.g., EU's Common Agricultural Policy harming Cameroonian onion farmers or Ghanaian tomato/chicken industries through dumping).

G7 and G20

These are forums for world leaders to discuss global economic and political issues. G7 (7 most advanced economies) and G20 (major economies) concentrate power and influence, contributing to global inequality by promoting member states' growth at the expense of non-members.

The Position of the European Union in a Globalised World

The EU is the world's most integrated trade bloc and second largest by population, making it a powerful market force. It aims for liberalised world trade, with 70% of its trade occurring internally. It represents 30% of global exported goods, hosts 160 of the top 500 TNCs, and is the largest single market area enabling free flows of people, goods, services, and money. The Euro is the second most powerful currency, and the EU's combined GDP is third globally. It is the highest inward and outward FDI recipient.

The EU speaks with a single voice at the WTO, giving it significant weight in international trade negotiations. Its trade policy aims for fair and open markets, addressing issues like child/forced labour and environmental destruction, and combining trade with development for the world's poorest countries.

The EU's aims include promoting peace, well-being, economic/social/territorial cohesion, and preserving European identity. It is important for member states as it provides collective strength in influencing the global economy, economies of scale for TNCs, and a simplified market system.

EU as a Global Power

While the EU wields significant economic, social, technological, commercial, and political influence, it is more a soft power than a hard power, lacking a unified military. Soft power relies on leading by example, promoting human rights, democracy, tackling climate change, and offering aid.

European Defence: The EU seeks to strengthen security and defence, but disagreements exist, especially concerning reliance on NATO vs. independent European defence. The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) aim to enhance international security, promote cooperation, and consolidate democracy. These involve civilian (reconstruction) and military missions (humanitarian, peacekeeping), such as Operation Sophia (tackling human trafficking) and military training in CAR.

The EU does not have its own army but relies on member state contributions. Financial commitment is a limiting factor; few member states meet NATO's 2% GDP spending target. Concerns exist about external threats (e.g., Russia) and the need for greater independence from the USA.

EU Migration Crisis

The 2015-2019 migration crisis saw high numbers of migrants (Syrian, Afghan, Iraqi) arriving in the EU, primarily from war-torn countries. Journeys were dangerous, and reception centres overcrowded. The Dublin Regulation assigns responsibility for asylum processing to the country of first arrival.

Divisions emerged within the EU, with some states (e.g., Germany) more open to migrants than others (e.g., Hungary), leading to conflict over "voluntary" vs. "mandatory" relocation. The Turkey Deal aimed to manage flows by returning irregular migrants to Turkey in exchange for Syrian resettlement. The European Border and Coast Guard Agency (EBCA) controls external borders to facilitate open internal borders (Schengen Area).

Regional Variations and Cohesion within the EU

Significant economic (GDP per capita) and social (health, education, employment, gender) inequalities exist between and within EU member states. For instance, Luxembourg's GDP per capita is 263% of the EU average, while Bulgaria's is 35%. The wealthiest 10% of EU households hold 50% of total wealth. Unemployment rates vary greatly (e.g., Spain 15%, Germany 3.7%).

The EU's goal is cohesion: to reduce disparities between regions and the backwardness of less-favoured areas. This strengthens the EU and demonstrates humanist values. The EU Cohesion Policy funds programmes via the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and European Social Fund (ESF), targeting regions with GDP below 90% of the EU average. It aims to foster growth and employment, improve infrastructure (e.g., TEN-T network), and reduce regional inequality.

Case Study: Germany's Regional Inequalities

Germany, the EU's strongest economy, still faces regional disparities, particularly between eastern and western Germany (a legacy of Soviet occupation). Eastern Germany has lower GDP per capita and higher unemployment but better childcare and gender parity due to former communist influence. EU cohesion funds support eastern Germany by encouraging businesses, relocating government departments, and extending internet coverage.

EU Policies: Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

The CAP, introduced in 1962, provides agricultural subsidies and rural development programmes to support farmers and modernise agriculture. It aims for food security and improved livelihoods. France is a major recipient of CAP aid, particularly for mountainous regions and small farms.

CAP funds go directly to farmers (75%) and rural development projects (25%), improving infrastructure and supporting small industries. Historically, CAP favoured intensive farming, leading to environmental problems (GHG emissions, pesticide use, land damage) and struggles for small farmers. The CAP is evolving towards more sustainable practices, supporting young farmers, priority zones, and organic farming. However, CAP subsidies can still lead to overproduction and dumping, harming non-EU states (e.g., Cameroonian onions, Ghanaian tomatoes).

The EU's 2004 Maritime Directive boosted European shipping TNCs (e.g., Maersk, CMA-CGM) by allowing member states to reduce corporate tax, increasing their global competitiveness.

Cross-Border Territories

These are areas within the EU where political cooperation facilitates smooth flows of people and goods, embodying territorial cohesion. They are crucial for EU cooperation and strength, acting as places of exchange. Examples include the Franco-Spanish border and the Tri-national Metropolitan Region of the Upper Rhine (Germany, France, Switzerland). Obstacles include differences in technical knowledge, institutions, language, legal systems, and culture.

Cross-border cooperation supports projects in healthcare (e.g., Cerdanya Cross-Border Hospital), education, employment, economic development, transport, tourism, and environment.

EU Green Deal

Adopted in 2020, the EU Green Deal aims to transform the EU into a low-carbon economy by 2050 (0 carbon emissions) and a 50% cut by 2030 (vs. 1990 levels), without reducing prosperity. This is seen as a key soft power initiative, influencing global sustainable development efforts. It covers energy, food, transport, manufacturing, and construction, focusing on cutting emissions, halting species loss, reducing waste, and better resource use. It applies to all EU budget spending, including CAP (e.g., lowering pesticides, encouraging organic farming). It aims to create jobs in green industries.

Challenges include high costs (1 trillion euros, plus a "just transition" mechanism), dependence of Eastern European economies on fossil fuels, and potential backlash from citizens (e.g., "gilets jaunes" protests). Critics worry it may make Europe less competitive globally and disproportionately burden poorer EU regions.

SDGs and the EU

The EU incorporates the UN's 17 SDGs into its "European Consensus on Development," integrating them into all EU policies. Priorities include the European Green Deal, a digital-age Europe, an economy working for people, a stronger Europe in the world, and promoting European values and democracy.

France in the EU

France plays a major role in building European unity, being a founding member, Schengen member, and Eurozone member. It is the second-largest contributor to the EU budget and holds a leadership position in climate change efforts (e.g., COP-21 Paris Agreement).