Intégration économique européenne : étapes et mécanismes

European Economic Integration: History, Concepts, and Evolution

European economic integration is a multifaceted process encompassing industrial, political, legal, economic, social, and cultural integration of European states. Initiated in the post-World War II era to foster peace and stability, it evolved from initial intergovernmental cooperation to a highly integrated union.

Foundations of European Integration

The aftermath of World War II, marked by widespread instability and the rise of the Cold War, spurred the desire for a united Europe. The prevailing belief that nationalism caused the wars led to proposals for tighter integration. Winston Churchill advocated for a "United States of Europe" in 1946. The Western European effort to resist communism saw the implementation of the Marshall Plan and the creation of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948, which aimed to advance economic recovery by reducing trade barriers and improving payment systems. This fostered economic cooperation over competition and laid the groundwork for deeper integration.

Federalism vs. Intergovernmentalism

A key debate throughout European integration has been between federalism and intergovernmentalism. Federalism advocates for a supranational organization with shared powers to prevent national rivalry, while intergovernmentalism maintains national sovereignty, requiring unanimous agreement for cooperation. Initially, intergovernmentalism dominated, evident in organizations like the OEEC and the Council of Europe. However, the Schuman Plan of 1950, inspired by Jean Monnet, marked a significant federalist step, leading to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952. The ECSC, comprising France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, and Italy, placed crucial coal and steel sectors under a supranational authority, demonstrating a radical move towards integration through economic means for political ends.

Key Milestones and Treaties

European integration has progressed through a series of treaties and initiatives:

• 1951: Treaty of Paris established the ECSC.
• 1957: Treaty of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC).
• 1968: Establishment of the customs union, eliminating internal tariffs and setting a common external tariff.
• 1985: Schengen Agreements removed internal border controls.
• 1986: Single European Act paved the way for the single market by 1993.
• 1992: Maastricht Treaty transformed the EEC into the European Union (UE) and outlined steps for a single currency.
• 2002: Adoption of the euro.
• 2009: Adoption of the Constitutional Treaty.
• 2010s: Responses to the sovereign debt crisis with the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) and later the European Stability Mechanism (ESM), and the 2013 European Fiscal Compact (TSCG).

Stages and Measures of Economic Integration

Economic integration is defined as the abolition of discrimination within an area, aiming to reduce or eliminate trade barriers between nations. It progresses through different stages, as conceptualized by Balassa (1961):

1. Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA): Reduced tariffs on some goods between member countries.
2. Free Trade Area (FTA): Eliminates tariffs on most goods and services between members, but each country retains its own tariff policy towards non-members. This requires rules of origin to prevent trade deflection.
3. Customs Union: Adds a common external tariff (CET) to a free trade area, applying the same tariff rate to goods entering the area from non-members, thereby preventing trade deflection.
4. Common Market: Allows free movement of products, labor, and capital among member countries.
5. Economic and Monetary Union: Unifies monetary and fiscal policy under a central authority (e.g., the Eurozone).
6. Political Union: Perfect unification of all policies by a common organization, involving the submersion of separate national institutions. This remains an ideal yet to be achieved.

The effectiveness of integration is measured by its impact on economic indicators like prices, trade volumes, and cross-border flows. European economic history closely matches these theoretical stages.

Trade Diversion

A significant concept in customs unions is trade diversion, introduced by Jacob Viner. This occurs when, after forming a customs union, a member country (A) starts importing a product from another member country (B) due to eliminated internal tariffs, even if a non-member country (C) was previously a cheaper source (even with tariffs). This can be less advantageous than free trade if the diversion outweighs trade creation, making economists sometimes cautious about the overall benefits of customs unions compared to pure free trade.

Key Takeaways

• European integration was driven by post-war peace efforts and economic cooperation, evolving from intergovernmentalism to supranational structures.
• Key figures like Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet were instrumental in establishing foundational institutions like the ECSC.
• Economic integration follows a staged process from free trade areas to political union, with the EU progressing through most of these stages.
• The debate between federalism and intergovernmentalism remains active.
• Concepts like trade deflection and trade diversion highlight complexities and potential drawbacks of regional integration agreements.