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This note provides an introduction to geopolitics, covering its definition, historical evolution, key concepts, actors, and spaces. It also outlines the structure and expectations for an academic course on the subject.

I. Course Overview and Expectations

A. Spirit, Organization, and Outline

• The course aims to provide tools for understanding a fascinating and alarming period in global affairs.

• It encourages students to develop a critical perspective on the current world (dis)order and international relations.

• It serves as an introduction to geopolitics, covering its concepts, objects, and methods, and requires no prior detailed knowledge (no prerequisites).

• The course is taught by Clément Astruc (clement.astruc@u-pec.fr).

• All course information, including the program, bibliography, and additional resources, can be found on the EPREL page.

B. Lectures and Examination

• The course consists of two-hour lectures.

• All lectures and the examination are conducted entirely in English.

• Students are encouraged to speak up and ask questions during lectures.

• The examination is a two-hour written test.

• Students choose one of two tasks for the examination: an essay OR a critical analysis of documents.

• To succeed, students should know the course material, delve deeper using the bibliography, and stay abreast of international news.

C. Course Structure (Provisional Program)

The course is divided into two main parts:

1. The World (Dis)order and Power in Today's Geopolitics

• Multilateralism since 1945: history and current challenges.

• The United States: a contested hegemonic power.

• The European Union: potential to become a genuine power.

• China and Russia: two "revisionist powers".

• The Global South: its long-term rise.

2. Classic and Emerging Topics in Geopolitics

• The transformations of warfare.

• Globalization and geo-economics.

• Sport as an instrument of soft power.

• The environment as a geopolitical factor.

• How the digital revolution is reshaping geopolitical relations.

II. Geopolitics: History and Definition of a Discipline

A. Geopolitics, from Emergence to Discredit

i. The Beginnings of the Discipline: A "Materialist" Geopolitics

• The term "Geopolitik" was first used by Rudolf Kjellén (Swedish jurist and political scientist) in 1899.

• The concept became more widely used during the interwar period, particularly in Germany, where the first school of geopolitics was founded in Munich.

• Pioneers developed geopolitical analysis before the term "geopolitics" was commonly adopted.

• "Materialist geopolitics" (Frédéric Lasserre) attempts to "demonstrate a direct and ontological link between a spatial configuration and the power of a state."

• The German school emphasized continental power and expansionism, viewing states as organisms with territorial and resource needs (Lebensraum).

• Key figures:

  • Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904): A nationalist writer and biologist who biologized social dynamics, comparing states to living organisms.

  • Karl Haushofer (1869-1946): Main figure of the first German school, advocating for foreign policy determined by geography and the acquisition of Lebensraum in the East for Germany.

• Other early geopolitical thinkers:

  • Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914): Developed the concept of sea power.

  • Halford John Mackinder (1861-1947): Introduced the concept of the "heartland" in his 1904 work, The Geographical Pivot of History.

  • Nicolas Spykman (1893-1943): Proposed the idea of the "rimland".

ii. "An Intellectual Poison"? Geopolitics Discredited by Nazism

• After World War II, geopolitics was largely discredited due to its association with Nazism.

• It was perceived as "intellectually fraudulent, empirically distorted, ideologically suspect, and tainted by association with Nazism" (K. Dodds).

• However, the extent of this association is debated, with some arguing it was a "guilt by association."

• While Haushofer focused on spatial relationships and the organic state, Hitler placed greater emphasis on race (the Aryan race) in dictating history and geography. Both, however, agreed on the need for Lebensraum for the German state.

B. The Renewal of Geopolitics since the 1970s

i. The "Statist" or "Geo-Realist" School

• Main characteristics:

  • Emphasis on the state as the primary actor.

  • Reflection in terms of power and power politics.

  • Global approaches at large scales.

• Main criticisms:

  • Overemphasis on conflict at the expense of cooperation.

  • The geographical dimension remains secondary (space as such, play of scales).

  • Insufficient attention to representations.

ii. The Geographical School

• Main characteristics:

  • Greater emphasis on how political phenomena are inscribed in space and multi-scalar analysis.

  • The state is less pre-eminent.

  • Incorporates insights from multiple social sciences.

  • Explores new subjects (e.g., humanitarian aid, resources, local geopolitics, geo-economics, borders).

• Notable figure: Yves Lacoste, known for his work with the journal Hérodote and the French school of geopolitics.

iii. Critical Geopolitics

• Emergence: Began in the 1990s.

• Focus: Emphasizes the role of discourse and ideology, aiming to deconstruct representations associated with space and geopolitics.

• Distinguishes between different perceptions of geopolitical relations:

  • Academics

  • Policymakers

  • Popular perceptions

• Objective: To deconstruct the ethnocentric character of geopolitical representations.

C. A Basic Definition

• Geopolitics lacks a single, universally accepted definition; it is inherently transdisciplinary.

• It combines "Geo" (geography) and "politics" (power), focusing on the interrelation between geography and power.

• Geopolitics concerns power – including conflicts, rivalries, and forms of cooperation – among multiple actors (not exclusively states), embedding these relationships within territories at various scales.

III. Key Notions in Geopolitics

A. Power

• Power is a multidimensional, often vague, and evolving notion central to geopolitical theory.

• It is relational: "capacity to act and, in given social situations, to have an effect on others that enables one to achieve one’s objectives" (Joseph Nye).

• Forms of power:

  • The ability to make others do what they otherwise wouldn't.

  • The ability to set and organize the rules of the game.

  • The ability to shape others’ preferences.

• Typologies of Power:

  • Hard Power: Coercive use of power, including military force, to impose one's will.

  • Soft Power: The capacity to attract and persuade others to want the same outcomes, often through cultural influence, values, and institutions.

  • Structural Power (Susan Strange, 1996): The capacity to shape the fundamental structures of the international political economy that govern other actors' operations, leading them to adhere to these structures.

  • Smart Power (Joseph Nye & Steven Nossal): The intelligent combination of hard and soft power, adaptable to context, and often leveraging allies or international organizations.

  • Sharp Power (Christopher Walker & Jessica Ludwig, 2017): The use of new digital tools by authoritarian regimes to exert influence and undermine Western democracies.

• Historical Debate:

  • At the end of the Cold War, Paul Kennedy (The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 1989) debated with Joseph Nye (Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, 1990) regarding the nature of American power.

  • These forms of power exist on a spectrum or continuum rather than being distinct, isolated domains.

B. Spaces

i. Space, Territory, Borders

• Territory is an appropriated space.

• Border:

  • The limit of a state's sovereignty and appropriation of territory.

  • Differentiation: Border (delimited, controlled line) vs. Frontier (zone of transition) vs. Boundary (abstract limit).

  • Contradictory dynamics: Borders are simultaneously becoming more numerous and fortified for control, while also becoming more porous due to rising economic exchanges, mobility, and integration, transforming them into interfaces and filters.

ii. The Multiple Spaces of Geopolitics

• Geopolitics extends beyond terrestrial landmasses to include:

  • Seas and oceans: Governed by international law like the UN Convention of Montego Bay (UNCLOS, 1982), which defines zones such as territorial seas, Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), the continental shelf, and the high seas.

  • Airspace: Subject to national sovereignty.

  • Outer space: Considered a common heritage of humankind under UN responsibility since 1967, with treaties like the Moscow Treaty (1963) prohibiting nuclear tests. However, the exact limit between airspace and outer space remains a legal ambiguity.

  • Cyberspace: A complex domain influenced by national laws like the Patriot Act (2001) and Cloud Act (2018), with implications for data sovereignty and digital warfare.

iii. The Scales of Geopolitics

• Geopolitics considers conflicts and power dynamics across varying and articulating scales, not just global or regional levels.

• Example: "Local geopolitics" (Subra, 2016)

  • Described as a "soft geopolitics," less violent and mediated than international conflicts.

  • No less geopolitical, as it involves "rivalries of power over one or more territories," aligning with Yves Lacoste's definition.

C. Actors

Geopolitical actors are diverse and operate at various levels:

• International Organizations (IOs) / Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs):

  • Political entities created by states.

  • Each state theoretically has a voice, but may transfer sovereignty to supranational bodies depending on integration level.

  • Possess international legal personality and issue their own acts.

• Transnational Corporations (TNCs):

  • Defined by UN Trade and Development as having at least six countries of operation, 25% of turnover generated abroad, and a minimum of $500 million in revenue.

  • Only about 1% of TNCs have more than 100 foreign subsidiaries and earn over 50% of turnover abroad.

  • Represent a significant economic force: ¼ of global GDP, ¼ of productive investment, 2/3 of world trade.

  • Maintain a complex relationship with states, potentially undermining sovereignty while also serving state interests or requiring state support.

• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

  • Formed by citizens and non-profit.

  • Independent of public authorities and private actors.

  • Operate within a democratic framework, connected to civil societies.

  • Have a transnational horizon.

  • Example: Oxfam America, which helped 15.25 million people through its programs in 2023-2024.